Food Safety and Hyienic Practices of Street Food Essay

DISCUSSION The street food industry plays an important role in developing countries in meeting the food demands of the urban dwellers. Street foods feed millions of people daily with a wide variety of foods that are relatively cheap and easily accessible (Latham, 1997). However there are significant reports of health problems that have been associated with these street foods(Muleta and Ashenafi (2001); Ashenafi (1995); El-Sherbeeny et al (1985); Abdussalam and Kaferstein, (1993); Mensah et al (2002) and Omemu and Aderoju (2008). Street foods are sources of nutrition for many low-income groups at affordable prices in large urban areas.Nevertheless, there are also several health hazards associated with them. These foods could be main vehicle for transmission of severe and fatal diseases that could be life threatening. Contamination of these foods could result from pre or post cooking contamination from the food handlers. Street food vendors are often unlicensed, untrained in food safety, food hygiene and sanitation, and work under crude unsanitary conditions (FAO 1990). Muinde and Kuria (2005) in their study in Nairobi, Kenya found that over thirty-five percent of the vendors belonged to the age category of 20-25 years. Sixty percent of the vendors were male while 40% were female. Sixty-two percent of the vendors interviewed had primary education and below, 36.3% had secondary education while only 1.3% had college education. In our study we found women made up 66.67% of the vendors while males made up 33.33% who fell into the average age group of 31-40 years with mean age of 41.23 years. This is in contrast with their findings. In Accra the street food trade was conducted by children aged >10 years and by women aged.

Life & Wessex King Essay

Life in the past was characterized with lots of battles between rival territories. This resulted to the rise of powerful empires and the measure of power during those days was through the number of wars fought. Warriors of those days were called Vikings. A Viking also denotes a pirate, merchant or explorer. These Norsemen normally used long ships to travel in the sea to all the places of their interest and used the same vessels to fight their enemies. The Vikings are traced to have originated in the early 17th century in the German territory. The initiator of Vikings in the Iceland is Erik the red. He lived all his life ruling his people after which his son picked the mantle from him (Gwyn, J. 2000). SCANDINAVIA The term Scandinavia is both a historical a major geographical part in the world. There exist also a people who are identified as the Scandinavians. According to the geographical setting, Scandinavia is located in the Northern Europe, a place called Scandinavian Peninsula. The kingdoms that existed in the Scandinavian region include: Finland, Norway and partly Denmark. A lot of research done also reveal that Sweden and Iceland also form part of this robust history. All these regions put together are further referred to as Nordic region. The geographical orientation of Scandinavia is rather ambiguous. The region spreads from the Norwegian Fjords all the way to the low areas in Denmark through the Scandinavian Mountains and to the archipelagos of Sweden and Norway. This region has diverse group of people and for this reason, there exist more that one dialect. The languages that were spoken in these regions included Norway, Sweden and Denmark dialects. These people usually understood each other and thus had mutual understanding. DO THE VIKINGS RIGHTFULLY DESERVE THE REPUTATION THAT THEY WERE CRUEL, MURDEROUS BARBARIANS? WHY? WHY NOT? The Vikings performed most of their ventures through wars. It is evident that a normal way of dressing was to be attire that is characteristic of a warrior. The males had war uniforms all the time. From the first time that the Vikings entered a territory, war had to be fought. It is mandatory that people must die in the event of war. The death of people was so common to these northern tribes that any one could talk of them to be cruel and murderous. Other ventures like sea piracy and looting were associated with brutality and blood shed. The victims of such encounters were left counting their losses if they were not dead. Erik who is one of the founders of the Vikings movement was actually observed to murder many people in his native land until he was expelled to go to exile, the result which led to the discovery of Ice land. EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF WESSEX, IN REGARD TO THE VIKINGS IN ENGLAND. The Wessex territory was known for its great power during the year 878. This territory had great potential that any attacker could admire. Te Wessex King of that time planed for a very efficient army that was to fight and defeat the Viking warriors. This king managed to resist the Vikings and with time became pronounced as Alfred the great. His territory was a centre for trade, commerce and administration. The Vikings however invaded this land and took loots from it as usual. The Wessex region acted as a real opposition to the advances of the Vikings. Every one feared the Vikings. The sight of these raiders approaching a region would send cold shivers down the guts of every king. King Alfred however managed to escape them, even though he was later cornered. The Wessex region became a home of habitation to some Vikings although others separated from the settling camp and continued with invasion. Wessex became a point mark towards bringing an end to the Viking advances in war. HOW DID THE VIKINGS CONTRIBUTE TO THE BREAK-UP OF THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE? The Vikings were a major threat to the kings during the Viking age. The Vikings attached Carolingian empire in the year 885 and 886 leading to the defeat of their kings. In 845, the Viking warriors sailed to seine in France and attacked it. The end result of this was a defeat to the Carolingian empire and the kings that followed were just puppet rulers who were initiated by the Vikings. This led to the fall of this empire and it took along time to come up again. EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS PHASES INVOLVED IN VIKING RAIDS. Vikings mainly had 3 phases of raids. The very first phase said to have lasted from 790-840. The Vikings used very shallow draught long ships. They always used these ships because they were suitable majorly for surprise attacks in the coastal towns. The size of these vessels was so small so that the Vikings could rush and attack very fast. With this they attacked Frisia and Aquitane. The second level of attacks occurred between 841 and 875 and the number of raids increased. The Vikings attacked by killing or enslaving their victims. With this, the attacks proceeded to the Mediterranean Sea. 876 to 911 saw the introduction of the third phase. With this, the Vikings started to invade frnce and other parts of Europe. They also developed their own fleets that were used to attack distance empires.

Aquinas and Aristotle's Perspective on the American Government Essay

Aquinas and Aristotle's Perspective on the American Government - Essay Example America was colonized by Britain and after independence, founders of the American society introduced federal system of government. This paper will analyze Aristotle and Aquinas view on the American style of governance and on allegations that the British occupation was unjust under the law of nature and God. The question that this paper will seek to answer is what the wisdom and justifications of these words in regard to Aristotle and Aquinas view of Governance in America are. Based on this question, the main objective of this paper is to analyze the teachings of Aristotle and Aquinas on Governance and apply them on American perspective. Thomas Aquinas observed that there are two types of governments, just and unjust. The three kinds of a just government are; monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. Aquinas states that monarchy is the best form of government, since one leader, known as a king is made to rule; his heart needs to be kind and just. The reason advanced by the philosopher is tha t no obstacle can come on the king’s rule. Oligarchy refers to rule by an elite group of people. Aquinas views this as second to monarchy since it is not efficient and ideal as a monarch in its operations. Aquinas argues that with oligarchy, there might be a different view which affects the functioning of the state. The least, in Aquinas view is a democracy, and he refers it as rule by the masses. Aquinas views this as the most inefficient since decisions are not implemented with speed. Basing on these teachings, the American claim of independence from British is not wise. They were against the King of England who was a monarch, and in his belief, monarchy is the best style of governance. Americans had the intention of creating a democratic government based on the concept of equality and unalienable rights. Aquinas argues that democracy can turn to be unjust (Lord, 47), for instance, when people turn out to be selfish and greedy, and, in a democracy, the unalienable rights of individuals can be looked down upon. The American system of governance is composed of the senate, the House of Representatives and the presidency and in Aquinas’ view; this is a just form of governance since the three organs control the excesses of each other. This hybrid style of governance was proposed by Aquinas, where the monarch, i.e. the presidency will be in check by a group of Aristocrats i.e. the senate and House of Representatives who are elected by the masses. For Aristotle, democracy is not the best form of government. He believed that the most efficient form of governance should be made using the concept of policy which embraces rule of law, personal freedom and dependent upon the middle class. The American style, though it’s a democracy was condemned by Aristotle, borrowed heavily from Aristotle’s teachings which are: Governments should enact policies which are for the benefit of the people. A stable regime is made of mixed regimes. The best form of government involves the balancing off the kingship, aristocracy and democracy. A pure democracy can turn into a tyranny of the majority. The rule of law should be the foundation of governance (Lord, 47). Basing on these teachings, the American constitution acknowledges the rule of law as one of its tenets which borrows heavily on Aristotle’s teach

State Curriculum and Standards for the State of South Carolina Essay

State Curriculum and Standards for the State of South Carolina Compared and Contrasted to the State of North Carolina - Essay Example It is based on a philosophy of teaching and learning that is consistent with current research, exemplary practices, and national standards. In South Carolina "Curriculum standards" has been changed into "Academic standards" came into force in 2004. This is a standards document aims to meet students and their parents expectations. In accordance with the South Carolina Educational Accountability Act of 1998, the purpose of academic standards is to provide the basis for the development of local curricula and statewide assessment. To some entent, these two documents are similar as they stipulate the basic standards nationally accepted. In North Carolina the Standard course of study include: Arts Education, Computer/ Technology Skills, English Language Arts, Guidance, Healthful Living, Information Skills, Mathematics, Second Languages, Science, Social Studies, Workforce Development, Dance and Music Education. The Curriculum of South Carolina include less subject covering only English, Foreign Language, Health and Safety, Mathematics, Physical Education, Science, Social Studies, Visual and Performing Arts fields. So, North and South Carolina have different set of subjects according to their state standards. It should be mentioned that today technological literacy is an integral part of a public school education. Whether or not access to multimedia computers and the Internet are realities for all students, state and national educational establishments, professional organizations and corporations recognize the immediacy of promoting appropriate integration of technology in K-12 classrooms. That is why in both states a particular attention is paid to technology standards for students and teachers which include: woven into curriculum standards, 1 unit of Computer Science required for graduation in South Carolina, and Computer-Technology Skills in North Carolina. For teachers the standards are the same for both state (ISTE foundation standards in State Technology Plan). Both of the states recognize four levels: 1 - Standard level; 2 - Knowledge and Skills level; 3 - Performance Descriptor level; 4 - Grade Level Example. The purpose of the North Carolina Standard Course of Study is to guarantee that all students have equal access to the same basic curriculum. If public education is an avenue to equal opportunity, high standards must be set for all students. The Standard Course of Study does not seek to prescribe how schools should organize themselves or how teachers should instruct. Rather, the curriculum sets standards against which schools and teachers may judge their success. In contrast to South Carolina pays more precise attention to the question how schools should organize themselves in order to help students to achieve their goals. The North Carolina ABCs Accountability Plan establishes performance standards which specify the level of proficiency a student must reach in order to have met specific content standards in specified subject areas. These performance standards are indicators of proficiency for those content areas that are tested. Today, however, the challenge of education is to prepare students for a rapidly changing world. According to standards adopted in South and North Carolina students should be prepared to: compete in a global economy, understand and operate complex communication and information systems,

WEEK 8 DISCUSSION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

WEEK 8 DISCUSSION - Essay Example Additionally, the use of a Professional Development Plan and the use of a Personal Technology Contingency Plan in studying are quite as it ensures continuity when power fails. More so, the use of the Walden University library site and its research databases in the search for articles and Scholarly Peer Reviews was most fundamental in our research. Nevertheless, time management was the ultimate strategy that propelled us to success. Indeed, identifying the best time and the most conducive environment for studying is significant in ensuring that one uses power time to study, down time for leisure, and few distractions during studies. In addition, it is always effective to study the difficult subjects first and adequately distribute the learning time to ensure understanding comes in handy. At the same time, it is necessary to create time for relaxation, entertainment, eating, and sleeping as they replace consumed energy in learning and ensures a fresh mind for further studies. Time management enables timely collection of data, analysis, documentation, and presentation. At the same time, adequate supervision and direction from the instructor is equally significant in a research study. We also discovered that group discussions offers open chances for more understanding on the research topics. Similarly, remain focused to the objectives of the research is also another strategy that guarantees success. However, to enhance success in a group, one must ensure teamwork and participation. I equally took keen interest on Walden residency and the Research Center (Center for Research Support), watched the Webinar, and learned more on Doctor of Business Administration. As a as a doctoral student, one has to participate in a Walden residency for purposes of research and scholarship. The terms and conditions guiding academic residency stipulate that one may only register for one residency per term. The PHD residency

Funds Management and Potfolio Selection Assignment

Funds Management and Potfolio Selection - Assignment Example that not all the investors have the necessary time and knowledge to search the market and identify different assets which can yield consistent results for them. In order to overcome such situations, intermediaries offer their services which include a range of services including offering advice as well as tailoring the portfolio for the individual investors according to the requirements of the investors. Fund management is one type of financial intermediation which can help investors to mange their wealth in a manner that not only provides the consistent returns but also preserve the capital of the investors. Investment fund industry in Australia has grown recently and as such the growth has resulted into the formation of a mutli-billionaire industry at the global level. The essential feature of the fund managers running such investment funds is to offer the services of managing the money on behalf of their clients because they develop expertise as well as knowledge of the market which ordinary investors lack. Fund management is often considered as the professional management of the different securities as well as assets in order to meet the specific goals of the investors. Funds are often created for specific purposes with very well define investment goals and objectives. Funds often also outline their strategies as to how the investment process will be carried out to achieve such objectives. For example, if the objectives of the fund are to provide consistent results with minimum risk, the fund may clearly outline that it will invest into government securities or money market so that the overall risk profile of the portfolio remains within acceptable limits. Fund management industry is typically dominated by small as well as large players which cater to the specific needs of the various groups of customers and offer specialized services by creating specific niche markets for themselves. Typically, a fund charges commission on the transactions carried by it

Effective Communication Skills in Healthcare Coursework

Effective Communication Skills in Healthcare - Coursework Example Patients often feel frustrated because their doctors do not apply patient-oriented communication skills which result into negative outcomes on the delivery of actual medical advice. Patients also complain of lack of important attributes of their physicians, such as empathy and kindness, which can lead to a communication gap between the two sides of the communication process (Hassali, Shafie, & Khan, 2012). It has been reported that patients’ concern on communication behaviour has positive outcomes in their level of satisfaction, and this kind of patients tend to be more submissive to treatment. On the negative side of it, poor communication skills on the part of the healthcare provider results in unsatisfied patients that reflects in the quality of the treatment and compliance to drug therapy (Lochman, 1983 as cited in Hassali, Shafie, & Khan, 2012). There are also reports that the lack of correct information results into inefficient health care, the inability of doctors and healthcare professionals to provide patients’ needs, and absence of respect and dignity of patients. On the other hand, health professionals also reported lack of skills in having good relationship with patients. According to NÃ ¸rgaard et al. (2012), healthcare providers should have positive relationships with each other, particularly in providing respect and appreciation to their peers so that they can provide respect and positive relationships with patients. There are problems that hamper the ideal patient-physician communication. Sometimes the healthcare providers have a busy schedule and need to treat many patients.

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Research Paper

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) - Research Paper Example A look into the history of OSCE over these years proves that the organization has done much more than any other organization could do in uniting the nations, preventing and mitigating conflicts, increasing mutual trust, and promoting economic and human rights conditions in the region. The highest political leader of the organization is the chairman in office. The selection of the chairman in office takes place every year from the member states. As specified in its website, OSCE has two permanent bodies which are responsible for taking important decisions; they are the ‘OSCE Ministerial Council’ and the ‘OSCE Permanent Council’ (OSCE website). The Ministerial Council normally has its meeting once in a year. This council is made of the Foreign Affairs Ministers of all the member states. As Bloed notes, the Permanent Council consists of representatives from each member state; this body conducts its meetings on a weekly basis and discusses the various issues in the region. Also, all immediate decisions are taken by this body (4). There are various offices to implement the decisions of OCSE. They are ‘the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), the High Commissioner on National Minorities (HCNM), and the OCSE Representative on Freedom of Media’ (qtd . ICNL). The secretariat of OCSE has its office in Vienna and it functions under the Secretary General. This secretariat has a number of various units. They range from â€Å"Action against Terrorism Unit, Conflict Prevention Centre, External Cooperation, Gender Section, Office of the Coordinator of OSCE Economic and Environmental Activities, office of the Special Representative and Coordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Strategic Police Matters Unit, and Training Section†(qtd ICNL, ‘NGO Law Monitor’). The OSCE has its origin associated with the dà ©tente phase of the early 1970s. In fact, there had been an increased interest in

Natural monopoly Essay Example for Free

Natural monopoly Essay I believe that times change and as they, change rules and regulations must adapt to the times. Therefore, the treatment of the different industries must represent the different industries as they grow. I do not think the Telephone and Broadcast should never have or ever be considered a â€Å"Natural Monopoly†. The concept of natural monopoly presents a challenging public policy dilemma. On the one hand, a natural monopoly implies that efficiency in production would be better served if a single firm supplies the entire market. On the other hand, in the absence of any competition the monopoly holder will be tempted to exploit his natural monopoly power in order to maximize its profits. A natural monopoly is defined in economics as an industry where the fixed cost of the capital goods is so high that it is not profitable for a second firm to enter and compete. There is a natural reason for this industry being a monopoly, namely that the economies of scale require one, rather than several, firms. Small-scale ownership would be less efficient. Natural monopolies are typically utilities such as water, electricity, and natural gas. It would be very costly to build a second set of water and sewerage pipes in a city. Water and gas delivery service has a high fixed cost and a low variable cost. Electricity is now being deregulated, so the generators of electric power can now compete. But the infrastructure, the wires that carry the electricity, usually remain a natural monopoly, and the various companies send their electricity through the same grid. Cable as a Natural Monopoly Nearly every community in the United States allows only a single cable company to operate within its borders. Since the Boulder decision [4] in which the U. S. Supreme Court held that municipalities might be subject to antitrust liability for anticompetitive acts, most cable franchises have been nominally nonexclusive but in fact do operate to preclude all competitors. The legal rationale for municipal regulation is that cable uses city-owned streets and rights-of-way; the economic rationale is the assumption that cable is a natural monopoly. The theory of natural monopoly holds that because of structural conditions that exist in certain industries, competition between firms cannot endure; and whenever these conditions exist, it is inevitable that only one firm will survive. Thus, regulation is necessary to dilute the ill-effects of the monopoly. [5] Those who assert that cable television is a natural monopoly focus on its economies of scale; that is, its large fixed costs whose duplication by multiple companies would be inefficient and wasteful. Thus, competitive entry into the market should be proscribed because it is bound to be destructive. The Competitive Reality 1. A skeptic hearing exhortations that cable television is a natural monopoly that should be locally regulated could have some questions at this point. First, if cable is a natural monopoly, why do we need to guarantee it with a franchise? Economists Bruce Owen and Peter Greenhalgh argue persuasively that given economies of scale, if a cable company is responsive and efficient in its pricing and service quality then there will be little incentive for competitors to enter, and no need for an exclusionary franchise policy. [9] Thus, if entry restrictions are necessary to arrest competition, the industry by definition is not a natural monopoly. 2. Second, if cable is a natural monopoly, is it necessarily a local monopoly? Some observers use the terms interchangeably, but there is no evidence that economic laws respect municipal boundaries. Given large fixed costs, does it make sense to award a local franchise to one company when another already has facilities in an adjacent community? Yet such wasteful duplication, as the natural monopoly proponents would call it, occurs frequently under the franchise system. Local franchises make no sense in a true natural monopoly setting. 3. These questions, however, go to the heart of natural monopoly theory itself, a doctrine that is under increasing attack. [10] In the face of crumbling conventional wisdom in this area, the burden should be on the natural monopoly proponents to demonstrate that competition is not possible, and further, that regulation is necessary. Such a demonstration will prove impossible in the cable context. Cable is both extremely competitive, facing both direct and indirect market challenges, and, in any event, is better left unregulated. For many decades, economic textbooks have held up the telecommunications industry as the ideal model of natural monopoly. A natural monopoly is said to exist when a single firm is able to control most, if not all, output and prices in a given market due to the enormous entry barriers and economies of scale associated with the industry. More specifically, a market is said to be naturally monopolistic when one firm can serve consumers at lower costs than two or more firms (Spulber 1995: 31). For example, telephone service traditionally has required laying an extensive cable network, constructing numerous calls switching stations, and creating a variety of support services, before service could actually be initiated. Obviously, with such high entry costs, new firms can find it difficult to gain a toehold in the industry. Those problems are compounded by the fact that once a single firm overcomes the initial costs, their average cost of doing business drops rapidly relative to newcomers. The telephone monopoly, however, has been anything but natural. Overlooked in the textbooks is the extent to which federal and state governmental actions throughout this century helped build the ATT or Bell system monopoly. As Robert Crandall (1991: 41) noted, Despite the popular belief that the telephone network is a natural monopoly, the ATT monopoly survived until the 1980s not because of its naturalness but because of overt government policy. I hope that the above facts help support my beliefs that these industries should not be considered Natural Monopolies. These companies just executed and had better site than other in the same industry had. Today ATT is just as strong as it ever was. References Benjamin, S. M. , Lichtman, D. G. , Shelanski, H. , Weiser , P. (2006). FOUNDATIONS. In Telecommunications Law and Policy . (2nd ed. ). (pp. 437 469). Durham, NC : Carolina Academic Press. Foldvary, F. E. (1999). Natural Monopolies . The Progress Report. Retrieved January 9, 2012, from http://www. progress. org/fold74. htm Thierer , A. D. (1994). UNNATURAL MONOPOLY: CRITICAL MOMENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BELL SYSTEM MONOPOLY . 14(2).

Information Systems and Information Technology Essay Example for Free

Information Systems and Information Technology Essay A combination of hardware, software, infrastructure and trained personnel organized to facilitate planning, control, coordination, and decision making in an organisation Contrast IS and IT: What is the difference between Information Systems and Information Technology? In: Computer Terminology, Technology, Information Technology[Edit categories] Answer: Information Systems is a large umbrella referring to systems designed to create, store, manipulate, or disseminate information. Example of an information system is a pencil and a piece of paper. The two objects themselves are just tools, but together they create a system for writing (information). The term Information systems has been around a lot longer than the computer, or the term information technology. These days the two are sometimes thought to be synonymous, but that, in most cases is a misconception. Information technology falls under the information systems umbrella, but has nothing to do with systems per say. IT deals with the technology involved in the systems themselves, e.g. an information system like wiki.answers.com contains many information technologies. Servers, server operating systems, web-server software (IIS, Apache, et al), and code written for the web-server software (PHP, C#, VB, PERL, Ruby, et al). Even your computer and browser make up part of this information system. Like the pencil and paper example, each one of the mentioned parts of this information system in itself is an information technology. That being said, most people in the profession no longer make a distinction. Moreover, companies call their IS/IT department a wide range of titles based on more on culture and tradition than anything else. Assist With Business Processes Information systems aid businesses in developing a larger number of value  added-systems in the company. For example, a company can integrate information systems with the manufacturing cycle to ensure that the output it produces complies with the requirements of the various quality management standards. Adoption of information systems simplifies business processes and removes unnecessary activities. Information systems add controls to employee processes, ensuring that only users with the applicable rights can perform certain tasks. Further, information systems eliminate repetitive tasks and increase accuracy, allowing employees to concentrate on more high-level functions. Information systems can also lead to better project planning and implementation through effective monitoring and comparison against established criteria.

Asbestos In Buildings: Types and Health Effects

Asbestos In Buildings: Types and Health Effects Asbestos in buildings current status Introduction Asbestos has been used for more than 2,000 years. It was named by the Ancient Greeks, its name meaning inextinguishable. Even then the Greeks noted the harmful affects of asbestos, as they noticed the slaves that wove the asbestos into cloth form had developed respiratory problems after studying their lungs. (asbestosresource) The asbestos fibres fall into two types, amphiboles and serpentines. The blue and brown asbestos fibres fall into the amphibole group. They fall into this group because they are compounds of metal silicates which consist of short and sharp fibres. For this reason they have the ability of remaining within the human body for long periods of time. Also for this reason this group of asbestos is more dangerous than the white fibred asbestos. (asbestoswatchdog) Today asbestos is a general term that is given to numerous naturally occurring silicate minerals. There are six forms of asbestos the three that are not very common are known as actinolite, anthophyllite, and tremolite. Amongst the six naturally occurring minerals there are three main forms of asbestos which are known as Chrysotile, Crocidolite and Amosite. Otherwise they are known in the same order as white, blue and brown. In 1999 The Asbestos Prohibition Regulations banned the use of all new forms of this material. There has been a gradual decline in the use of asbestos from the early 1960s. Even though a high number of buildings have had the asbestos removed and then replaced with a more suitable material, there is still a very high number of buildings that still contain asbestos and most of it is has remained undetected. (Eclipsescientific) Asbestos has many properties and for this reason it was widely used. Strength Incombustibility Use as a binding agent Resistance to high temperatures Resistance to electrical current Resistance to acids and alkalis Absorbs sound (Asbestos-answers) It can be seen very clearly why asbestos was used on such a wide scale, looking at the properties it seemed to be the only material that had such a variety and was also available on a broad scale. Asbestos possesses unique tensile strength and flexibility from its fibres and it is for this reason that it was used in the first place. These fibres are too small to be seen by the naked eye. The ability of the asbestos fibres to flex allows them to be woven, though it is harder to weave the amphibole group due to there rigidity. On the other hand the serpentine group was used more due to its flexibility. There is no simple test to recognize the different types of fibres, and this judgment cannot be made on colour alone, but it requires a lab test to find out which type of asbestos it is that they are dealing with. More will be discussed on how the tests are carried out and the types of samples that are used later on in this report. All these forms of asbestos are known to be very dangerous to human health and can cause illnesses to which there is no cure. The way the asbestos enters the body is through the inhalation of the fibres, these fibres then rest in the lower part of the lungs where they can lay for many years. These fibres cannot be absorbed through the skin. Due to the size of the fibres they can only be seen through a microscope, and there size also allows them to penetrate deep into the lungs, this can cause respiratory diseases or some types of cancer. â€Å"The principal asbestos related diseases are that of: asbestosis (fibrosis) scarring of the lungs; mesothelioma a cancer of the inner lining of the chest wall or abdominal cavity; lung cancer; and diffuse pleural thickening a non-malignant disease in which the lining of the lung (pleura) becomes scarred.† (13/11/07, healthandsafetytips) The types of asbestos containing materials found in domestic properties are likely to be in ducts, access panels, ceiling tiles, partitions etc. These if still existing in domestic buildings will be found 1960’s and 1970’s built housing. Most of the materials containing asbestos look similar to those materials that do not contain asbestos. If the materials that contain asbestos are in good condition they can be left in place and managed, but if they are damaged dangerous fibres can be released which have to be removed only by an approved contractor. Asbestos being a very hazardous material only becomes dangerous when it is airborne and the fibres are inhaled. Today the types of commercial buildings that asbestos may still remain in are the ones that were refurbished in between 1950 and 1980 as this was the peak time that the asbestos was used in buildings. What will make it more likely for the building to contain asbestos is if the building had a steel frame and contained boilers with thermal insulation. Asbestos wasn’t only used in sheet form and as an insulation but also as asbestos cement which was used to cover walls etc. The asbestos was also used in the buildings in the form of a spray which was mixed with hydrated asbestos cement; this was then sprayed on to many of the structural and non-structural members, so the majority of the building may contain asbestos in one form or another. (HSE) Overtime the members and materials coated with asbestos spray may break down due to wear and tear this will gradually release asbestos fibres into the air which due to their non visible fibres could be inhaled therefore causing health problems. Before work is started on a building any asbestos containing material cement, plasterboards etc must be identified. Any work carried out on asbestos containing material must be carried out by a HSE licensed contractor. (sutton.gov.uk) Asbestos 2.1– Types As mentioned in the introduction to this report there are six forms of asbestos chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. Of these six there are the three main forms of asbestos which are amosite (brown), chrysotile (white) and crocidolite (blue). The colours of these types of asbestos are not visible to the human eye, so all the asbestos should be treated as equally hazardous. Chrysotile or better known as white asbestos is obtained from rocks known as serpentines. This is the only type of asbestos that belong to this rock group. These rocks are found commonly through out the world. This type of asbestos is the only one out of the others which has curly flexible fibres as opposed to the other types of fibres which are straight, sharp like a needle and some are even brittle. This is also the most common type of asbestos as it accounts for about 90% of all the asbestos consumed across the world, when compared to the other types. This is still the most commonly mined form of asbestos till today. (phhenv) This fibre is known to do the least amount of damage to the lungs. This fibrous material is composed of 40% silica and 40% magnesium, though these fibres have a good heat resistance they can be destroyed by acids. Chrysotile has fibres which have a layered silicate structure. These layers can be regarded as made up from silicon atoms and each of these atoms is surrounded by four oxygen atoms at the corners which creates an almost regular tetrahedron. Then there are the magnesium atoms, of them each are surrounded by six oxygen atoms which creates an almost regular octahedron. These two are linked by the sharing of there basal oxygen atoms which then forms a continuous layer. Amosite asbestos is a part of the amphiboles rock group; this is mainly used as a flame retardant material within thermal insulation material such as ceiling tiles. This brown asbestos is typically used in insulating materials. The crystals in this type of asbestos vary and they can be flat prisms, brittle grains or long thin threads. The threads are commonly found in naturally occurring bundles. The longer and thinner fibres of amosite are rather flexible and curve to form wide arches. These long wide arches of amosite fibres then break into minor groups that consequence in sharp needle like fibres. The ends of the fibres are plane and do not have tattered or split ends, this is one of the main characteristics that helps differentiate amosite from chrysotile asbestos fibres. Broken bundles also are frequently found and resemble broom tails in appearance. Remains of the crystal fibres can be recognized in some building resources that were manufactured with amosite. (davidcole) Crocidolite asbestos is one of the five types of amphibole asbestos; this means the fibres in Crocidolite are made up of mineral crystals that look like chains. Crocidolite is often called blue asbestos, and occurs naturally in Australia, South Africa, Russia and Canada. Crocidolite was the least types of asbestos used in commercial products. Crocidolite fibres usually bear a resemblance to chrysotile fibres but they are vaguely more brittle. This form of asbestos is harder than any other member in the amphibole family. This is also one of the most carcinogenic fibres as it induces the release of reactive oxygen species from phagocyte cells (cells that engulf and destroy invading organisms). This in turn damages the cells DNA and as all cells are programmed to die after a certain amount of time, the damaged DNA changes that and therefore the cell will reproduce uncontrollably. This will eventually result in malignancy and show the result of the carcinogenic properties of asbestos fibres. (carcin.oxfordjournals) The contemporary use of asbestos dates from the late 1800’s where great amounts of asbestos deposits were discovered in Canada. Brusquely after this discovery commercial asbestos mine was opened in Russia. Since then the two former mentioned countries have been the main worldwide producers of chrysotile. There is no asbestos mined in the UK and the largest asbestos producer in the world is Russia. The main sources of asbestos that are imported into the UK are from Canada and South Africa. It can be seen that Russia has been the largest producer of the most commonly used form of asbestos (Chrysotile). Whereas South Africa has been the smallest producer of white asbestos. These production values have dropped since the ban of asbestos around Europe, hence the amounts of asbestos used has declined. tonnes. It also indicates the amount of asbestos that America has been using since the 1940’s. It can clearly be seen that America was the largest consumer of asbestos until the 1970’s when the use of asbestos started to decline. By 1999 the worldwide production of asbestos had also declined by more than a half since 1990. This signifies that around the 1990’s asbestos had started become prohibited around the worlds largest consumers hence the overall consumption of asbestos was rapidly reduced. 2.3– Processed Asbestos is processed through a milling procedure, where the useful fibres are separated from the non-useful materials within the asbestos rock. When the fibres are separated they become shorter and also split lengthwise due to their crystalline structure. Many of the fibres that result from the milling process are too small to see with the naked eye. The fibres that are milled are graded by a machine as they pass through it they are caught in a sieve and then measured. This process may vary from mine to mine. There are many different grades of fibres that are used in the construction industry but the focal point is on those fibres that are in the respirable range, as it is these fibres that have the size and shape which can cause damage to human health by penetrating into the depth of the lungs, and this is where they will remain for long periods of time. (Asbestos: from rock to fabric, 1956) 2.4– Uses in construction The first use of asbestos for construction purposes was in 1890 in the form of fireproof roofing materials. Later on in the next 10 years on from 1890 the use of asbestos expanded to engine gaskets and boiler insulation, it can be seen that the heat resistance properties of asbestos were being exploited for commercial use. Then from the early 1900’s the use of asbestos expanded to building insulation and in the 1930’s this had extended to a cement bonding agent. Indicating that asbestos had become a highly sought after material. Up to date it has been estimated that asbestos may be a component of more than 3,000 types of construction materials (Hess, 1998). According to figures from the asbestos report from the committee, out of 143 000 tonnes of asbestos that was imported into the UK in 1976, roughly about 42 900 tonnes were used to manufacture construction products such as cladding sheets and roofing tiles (Stationery Office, 1979). Due to the high heat resistance of asbestos it was mainly used in the construction for fire protection, i.e. to separate rooms. It can also be mixed with cement and used as a spray, which is then sprayed onto articles within a structure. Due to its high-quality weather resistance it was used on a large scale on roof sheets, pipes and guttering. (Harrogateaccommodationservice) There were many materials manufactured for construction purposes. They are as follows; For the roofs of the buildings there were many different materials used, the main materials contained asbestos bonding. Cement roof slates, cladding and roofing sheets all contained asbestos bonding in the form of cement. The former three materials were all designed to be strong as they will face different temperatures and weathering. The combination of asbestos and cement made it very hard for these materials to release fibres, unless they were heavily damaged, drilled or cut using other machinery. As mentioned above the roofing asbestos products were made to be very strong so therefore they are of low risk when it comes to releasing fibres and danger to human health compared to those asbestos products used on the inside of the building. The flooring in buildings that were constructed with ACM’s may also contain asbestos. This can be in the form of 99 inches thick floor tiles which were used in the early stages of ACM’s becoming popular. The tiles also come in the 1212 inches size which is the more common size used for floor tiles today. Linoleum floor sheeting is also another type of asbestos containing material that was used for floors of kitchens and bathrooms but was most commonly used in commercial buildings such as hospitals and school corridors. In addition mastic glue was used to stick the linoleum and tiles to the floor may have also contained asbestos. Like every asbestos product it should be assumed that these products contain asbestos until proven otherwise by microscopic identification (Sandro A, p68). The illustration above shows typical asbestos linoleum floor sheeting and asbestos containing wall tiles which could also be used for the floor. Insulation was another material used in construction that contained asbestos namely crocidolite. This was used to line the attic of a building and in some cases to line fireplaces and pipes. Asbestos is chemically lifeless hence it has excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties and this is the reason for its use as insulation (Fillmore. W, Galaty, Wellington. J, 2002). It must be noted that asbestos was almost always bonded with other materials that were already being used for a certain job i.e. roof tiles, cladding etc. All the asbestos did is improve the properties of these materials making them more durable, heat resistant and flame retardant. Acoustic ceiling materials were used to reduce the amount of sound travel between the floors of a building. The asbestos was used as a spray which was applied to the ceiling; this was mainly to save money from having to plaster the ceiling. The asbestos was bonded with ceiling paint and applied Carcinogenic agents are those that can influence the carcinogenic development either by mutating vital target genes or by escalating the amount of cells at threat from mutations. â€Å"Cytogenetic and molecular studies of asbestos-related cancers indicate that inactivation or loss of multiple tumor suppressor genes occurs during lung cancer development. Aneuploidy and other chromosomal changes induced by asbestos fibers may be involved in genetic alterations in asbestos-related cancers†. (Pubmedcentral) Furthermore, asbestos fibers may influence the carcinogenic process by inducing cells to rapidly multiply and produce new cells or tissues, free radicals, or other promotional mechanisms. This indicates that asbestos fibers may act at numerous stages of the carcinogenic process by both genetic and epigenetic (changes the physical characteristics of an organism) mechanisms. The ability of the asbestos to remain in the lungs and body is undoubtedly important in fibre carcinogenicity. On the other hand, the time necessary for a fibre to remain in the lung to put forth a cancer-related effect is tricky to state. (Pubmedcentral) Studies of how health-related conditions occur in specific populations show that the amphiboles and chrysotile can increase the risk of lung cancer. The carcinogenicity of chrysotile has been recognised for some time by international bodies, â€Å"This carcinogenicity was confirmed by the experts consulted by the panel; with respect to both lung cancers and mesotheliomas†¦we therefore consider that we have sufficient facts that there is in fact serious carcinogenic risk associated with the inhalation of chrysotile fibres† (epa.gov) The above statement indicates that chrysotile has the carcinogenic ability to be able to cause cancer if people are exposed to airborne fibres. (Mesotheliomareference) Details of exactly how asbestos fibres cause malignancy in cells is still largely unknown. Although there is a lack of information of how the malignancy occurs in the cells from these fibres the basics of how these mechanisms occur is known. It is not apparent if the asbestos fibres cause malignancy by encouraging the cells by direct relations or by the toxic materials that are released by the fibres which will eventually cause cancer. The fibres will first cause local irritation and inflammation to the neighbouring tissue, where they will get lodged afterwards. The inflammation and irritation causes the body to release chemicals, these chemicals cause changes in the cells and the interaction with the asbestos fibres and other factors which are largely unknown, will eventually cause the cell to continue onto a malignant change. (medicineworld.org) The human body has different sets of genes for growth promotion and growth suppression. In a regular healthy state the genes that promote growth and genes that suppresses the growth are in good synchronization, so that the cell growth and cell division occur only when it is needed. These growths related genes are susceptible to and can get damaged by internal or external factors. Therefore if a growth suppressing gene is damaged the mechanism that controls the suppressing and unwanted growth might be lost. Alternatively if damage occurs in the growth promoting genes, they might lose their capability to endorse cell growth, but some types of damage can actually increase the growth promoting ability of these types of genes. The result of this type of damage to the cell genes is that it no longer pays attention to the commands of the tumour suppressor genes and continues to multiply. Each cell is programmed to expire after definite number of cell divisions. Due to the damage this programmed cell death does not take place, in turn causing the cell to multiply without any control making the cell almost immortal. This ability to multiply without control and the immortality factor rapidly increases the chances of the cell to develop into cancer. The asbestos fibre will damage the genes of the cells and causing genetic changes in a cell which is programmed to perform a certain task will almost definitely cause more harm then good, and in this case it can lead to cancer. So asbestos does have a level of carcinogenicity, but the factors that this depends on are varying i.e. length of exposure, type of asbestos exposed to. (Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposure and Their Health Effects, 2000) 3.1 – Fibre types and Health affects. 3.1.1 – Which is worst Currently there is no strong evidence that supports which type of fibre is the most harmful to the human body. It is stated that chrysotile is the least harmful and that amosite is the most harmful as it has the highest link to lung and respiratory cancers and conditions. 3.1.2 – Why is the worst 3.1.3 – Illnesses Mesothelioma is a cancer of the mesothelium; this is a thin membrane which lines the chest, abdomen and the organs that surround this area. This type of cancer is usually associated with Crocidolite, but it can also be caused by other types of asbestos as well. The cancer can develop even after very little exposure to asbestos fibres, and can take up to 15 years to develop. This is known as the latent period and in some cases it has known to take up to 40 years before it develops. It is also thought that this type of cancer may be related to other malignancies than just asbestos. As with all the types of asbestos cancers smoking can cause the cancer to speed up. Lung Cancer from asbestos exposure can take two common forms the small cell lung cancer which is as stated by its title a cancer where the cells are small and round. Alternatively there’s the non small cell lung cancer, this is where the cancer cells are larger. Out of these two types of lung cancers the small cell lung cancer accounts as the main from by having a cancer relation of 80%, where as large cell lung cancer only accounts for 20% out of the two types. Asbestosis is the progressive scarring of the lungs; this is due to continuous exposure to asbestos fibres. This illness may take years before it is noticed but the common signs of asbestosis also mimic those of other respiratory problems. The most common symptoms of asbestosis are breathlessness and dry coughs, but these can easily be confused with other problems. The asbestos fibres continuously irritate the lung surface causing it to scar and eventually leading to the thickening of the lung surface. Diffuse Pleural Thickening Benign Pleural Effusion Benign Pleural Plaques Rounded atelectasis or folded lung Mesothelioma (asbestosawarenesswales) 3.1.4 – Occupational exposure Electricians and construction labourers are one of the most common workers who have a higher chance of being exposed to asbestos. They are more likely to come across ACM’s as they work around the area of ACM’s, electricians work in lofts or re wire buildings where they have to disturb some of the materials. These materials may contain asbestos and therefore release fibres that can be inhaled and eventually cause disease. Construction workers when carrying out demolition on a building are at a very high risk of disturbing large amounts of asbestos fibres and therefore increase the amount they inhale. These two occupations may come across asbestos more often than any other occupations. (lhc.org) Insulation workers and Laggers who apply insulation materials can also be at high risk of asbestos exposure, this is because they have to disturb walls and sometimes have to work near the roof of the building and these are the most common areas that asbestos remains in buildings. This is because asbestos was used in the spray form to help strengthen plaster boards and cement products and if any of these are disturbed then they will release asbestos fibres. This will expose the workers to high amounts of asbestos as these areas are not well ventilated and therefore they will be breathing in more fibres. (Asbestosawarenesswales) Carpenters, Plumbers and pipe-fitters are also at risk from asbestos exposure because they have to drill through walls to carry out there duties and the drilling will agitate any asbestos fibres and therefore may cause exposure to asbestos. The asbestos disease are all caused due to the asbestos fibres causing damage to the body in one form or another, either by damaging the cells at DNA level or damaging the tissue as a whole. These fibres are very sharp when examined under a microscope. It is this sharpness that causes the damage and also the ability of the human body to remove the asbestos fibres, as the cells try to engulf the fibres to destroy them, which is a near impossible task to do they and up being damaged in return. (asbestos.net) All of the above occupations and many more are at risk from asbestos exposure and the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006 makes sure than any building that is suspected to contain asbestos records it in an asbestos register and this register is shown to anyone who maybe carrying out work on the site. The regulations will be discussed in more detail during the course of this report. 4. – Remains/Assessments 4.1 – Types of building Most asbestos will be remaining in buildings that were built, refurbished or repaired between 1950 and 1980, as this was the peak period were asbestos was used in building materials in the United Kingdom. The amount that remains in buildings is very hard to determine or even estimate as it will be a very time consuming job. All the relevant data that is needed to even make an estimation cannot be found in one place. There are many estimated and approximated figures for the amount of buildings within the UK which contain ACM’s. Most of the information is based on commercial and non-domestic properties. Any buildings that were constructed before the year 2000 is assumed to contain asbestos unless there is strong evidence pointing otherwise. The reason for this is because the final ban on asbestos was bought in during the year 1999. This is also the basis of the estimation for the current status of asbestos in the UK, as the year 2000 was considered the year where all new asbestos building materials were completely banned in the UK. 4.1.1 – Commercial/Domestic While there are no dependable figures, it is approximated that there are still thousands of tonnes of asbestos remaining in buildings. As many as 750,000 non-domestic premises may contain asbestos. (rgeurope) Others governing bodies suggest that â€Å"It is estimated half a million commercial premises may contain asbestos† (amsscotland). So the estimated number of commercial buildings that may contain ACM’s is around the half million figure. This figure is estimated by adding up of all the non-domestic properties such as offices, schools, factories and hospitals that were built before the year 2000. 5. – Surveys 5.1 – How survey carried out After an extensive search three types of surveys have been identified. Type 1: Walk Through Survey The first survey that is carried out is a presumptive survey. This survey does not involve any sample taking; rather it involves identifying all areas and locations which may have asbestos containing materials (ACMs) by a visual inspection. From this survey the condition of the ACMs are noted and there locations this is for the purpose of benefiting the person that may be carrying out work on a structure or occupying it. This is because any suspected materials have to be treated as asbestos containing materials unless there is a guarantee that the materials do not contain any asbestos. This confidence can only be reassured if the materials are glass, wood or metal. It must also be made sure that these materials that do not contain asbestos are not hiding any materials that do i.e. wooden joist hiding an asbestos ceiling tile etc. (Bridgend) Type 2: Sampling Survey This survey is that same as the first survey in all aspects except that samples are collected from some suspected materials and then these samples are sent off for analysis to a lab which will most likely use a microscope to identify the fibres. The sampling can be carried out at the same time as the survey and each suspected material is sampled. Unlike the first survey which can be carried out by an in house member this survey can only be carried out by a qualified and trained professional. (Bridgend) Type 3: Pre-Demolition/Refurbishment Survey This survey is carried out to gain full access to all ACMs and it may involve destructive inspection. This is a must if a building is going to be demolished because if the ACMs are not removed then the dangerous asbestos dust can be released into the air which can cause health problems on a large scale. This also helps to identify all areas with ACMs so they can be removed before a major refurbishment and replaced with more suitable materials. Therefore this survey is deemed necessary if work is going to be carried out on a large scale, so the current condition of any ACMs is established. As above this survey should only be carried out by a trained and qualified professional. (Ac-environmental-services) 5.2 – How to take samples of suspected material Taking samples of suspected materials depends on the type of survey that is carried out. If there were materials that are suspected of containing asbestos during a type 1 walkthrough survey then no samples will need to be taken, this is because they will just be identified and there location noted. Whereas if type 2 or 3 surveys were carried out then the samples taken could be of thumbnail size or they could be larger. It should be noted that these samples will be identified as ACM’s under a microscope so there is a limit to the size that a sample can be. Samples from each suspected ACM are collected and analysed to validate or contradict the surveyors judgement. Sampling may take place with the survey or, in the case of some larger surveys, as a separate exercise following completion of a Type 1 survey. 5.3 – Procedures and Precautions taken The procedures for taking samples are that first a site survey must be carried out in the form of risk assessment. Any risk found in the assessment will form the procedure to follow when taking samples. The main and foremost part of the procedures is that anyone taking samples must make sure that any disturbance of suspected ACM’s is kept to the bare minimum. This is because it will reduce the amount of fibres that are released. The person taking the samples must take into account that the premises may be occupied and the minimal disruption is caused to the client’s daily operations. There may also be employees or tenants on site and all precaution must be taken to protect their health and safety. (HSE) The sampling personnel must also make sure that the adequate personal protection equipment is worn while carrying out this delicate procedure, as they are the ones closest to being exposed to the asbestos. They must make sure that the bare minimum that they use is disposable overalls, over shoes and a respirator. There may also be other equipment used but this depends on the risk assessments finding for example if the risk assessment found that there was asbestos that has been disturbed then air extraction may have to be used to stop the fibres spreading but if there is just suspected ACM’s then basic equipment mentioned can be used. (HSE) There are different respirators for different types of ACM’s, which ever was identified in the risk assessment. The main precaution just before taking samples is to wet the suspected ACM to make sure that the amount of fibres released is minimal. The sample area can be wetted by using basic waster or a wetting agent. Wetting can be done in different ways for different materials, for boards and sheets the water or wetting agent can be sprayed directly on to the surface, as t

Family Therapy Involving an Alcoholic Parent Essay -- Counseling/Thera

One in five adults can identify with growing up with an alcoholic relative and Twenty-eight million Americans have one parent abusing or dependent on alcoholic (Walker, & Lee, 1998). There are devastating and ubiquitous effects of alcoholism, which vary from psychological, social, or biological problems for families. Counselor’s treating this problem all agree that the relationships within a family, especially between a parent and a child is one of the most influential within a system, but what are the effects on the family when a parent is an alcoholic? Contemporary research has found there is a higher prevalence of problems in the family when alcohol is the organizing principle. In addition, there is copious research on the roles of individuals within the family becoming defined into specific categories, and evidently, the roles may become reversed between the parent and the child. This topic of functional roles in alcoholic families will be analyzed and investigated further. Family therapy has had substantial results in the treatment of an alcoholic parent. These results will be discussed more along, with the literature examining the existing research related, to specific interventions and treatments in family therapy with an alcoholic parent. Before research on the treatment is illuminated on distinctive therapies, it is crucial for counselors facilitating family therapy to comprehend the literature on the presenting problems commonly, associated with alcoholic parents and the effects this population has on their families. Furthermore, the adverse outcomes an alcoholic parent has on their children and spouses has been researched and reviewed. Children of Alcoholics (COAs) Negative Outcomes Parental alcoholism has ... ...temporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 24(2), 371. Copello, A., Velleman, R., & Templeton, L. (2005). Family interventions in the treatment of alcohol and drug problems. Drug & Alcohol Review, 24(4), 369-385. doi:10.1080/09595230500302356 Steinglass, P. (2008). Family Systems and Motivational Interviewing: A Systemic-Motivational Model for Treatment of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 26(1/2), 9-29. doi:10.1300/J020v26n01_02 Liepman, M. R., Flachier, R., & Tareen, R. (2008). Family Behavior Loop Mapping: A Technique to Analyze the Grip Addictive Disorders Have on Families and to Help Them Recover. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 26(1/2), 59-80. doi:10.1300/J020v26n01_04 Chan, J. G. (2003). An Examination of Family-Involved Approaches to Alcoholism Treatment. Family Journal, 11(2), 129-138. doi:10.1177/1066480702250149 Family Therapy Involving an Alcoholic Parent Essay -- Counseling/Thera One in five adults can identify with growing up with an alcoholic relative and Twenty-eight million Americans have one parent abusing or dependent on alcoholic (Walker, & Lee, 1998). There are devastating and ubiquitous effects of alcoholism, which vary from psychological, social, or biological problems for families. Counselor’s treating this problem all agree that the relationships within a family, especially between a parent and a child is one of the most influential within a system, but what are the effects on the family when a parent is an alcoholic? Contemporary research has found there is a higher prevalence of problems in the family when alcohol is the organizing principle. In addition, there is copious research on the roles of individuals within the family becoming defined into specific categories, and evidently, the roles may become reversed between the parent and the child. This topic of functional roles in alcoholic families will be analyzed and investigated further. Family therapy has had substantial results in the treatment of an alcoholic parent. These results will be discussed more along, with the literature examining the existing research related, to specific interventions and treatments in family therapy with an alcoholic parent. Before research on the treatment is illuminated on distinctive therapies, it is crucial for counselors facilitating family therapy to comprehend the literature on the presenting problems commonly, associated with alcoholic parents and the effects this population has on their families. Furthermore, the adverse outcomes an alcoholic parent has on their children and spouses has been researched and reviewed. Children of Alcoholics (COAs) Negative Outcomes Parental alcoholism has ... ...temporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 24(2), 371. Copello, A., Velleman, R., & Templeton, L. (2005). Family interventions in the treatment of alcohol and drug problems. Drug & Alcohol Review, 24(4), 369-385. doi:10.1080/09595230500302356 Steinglass, P. (2008). Family Systems and Motivational Interviewing: A Systemic-Motivational Model for Treatment of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 26(1/2), 9-29. doi:10.1300/J020v26n01_02 Liepman, M. R., Flachier, R., & Tareen, R. (2008). Family Behavior Loop Mapping: A Technique to Analyze the Grip Addictive Disorders Have on Families and to Help Them Recover. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 26(1/2), 59-80. doi:10.1300/J020v26n01_04 Chan, J. G. (2003). An Examination of Family-Involved Approaches to Alcoholism Treatment. Family Journal, 11(2), 129-138. doi:10.1177/1066480702250149

Macbeth - Power Shifts :: essays research papers

DRAMA OFTEN EXAMINES THE WAYS INDIVIDUALS STRUGGLE TO DOMINATE AND/OR MINIPULATE EACH OTHER. DISCUSS THE TECHNIQUES USED IN ONE OR MORE PLAYS, WHICH DRAW OUT ATTENTION TO THE POWER SHIFTS BWTWEEN CHARACTERS. The text Macbeth by famous playwright William Shakespeare portrays a dramatic power struggle by the careful employment of various literary techniques. "Authority poisons everybody who takes authority on himself" (Vladimir Ilyich Lenin) aptly describes this prominent theme of Macbeth. Techniques include symbolism, emotive language, narrative structure and imagery, which combine to represent the tragic plot portraying the contest between goodness and evil in Macbeth. In the tragedy Macbeth emotive language and soliloquy have been employed to emphasize the struggle for domination between the characters. The main theme of Macbeth, the desire for power and dominance, is appropriately summarized by the following quote: "Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself And falls on the other" (I, VII, 54) The main character, Macbeth, seeks increasing authority influenced by the witches' prophecies, at any cost. Dramatic language has been successfully portrayed Macbeth's desire, through the above quote, whereby the search for power and ambition has been decided. Yet, the result of such ambitious ideals is at risk of resulting in the opposite, being condemnation. Personification in the form of 'Vaulting ambition" and "itself" has been employed to aid to the understanding of the exert, combining with dramatic language which also contributes to the overall impact of the theme. Macbeth lets his "vaulting ambition" rush fate, hence hasten doom. The technique symbolism has also been suitably employed to further enhance Macbeth's struggle for power and dominance, hence the main theme. This may be demonstrated where Lady Macbeth states: "What, will these hands ne'ver be clean...! Here's the smell of blood still..." (V, I, 174) The apparition of blood on Lady Macbeth's hands, which can not be removed, is symbolic of her subconscious revealing her 'wrong doing' in previous sections of the text. Even though Lady Macbeth is no longer influencing her husband towards evil occurrences, the blood is symbolic of her attempts to aid Macbeth's path towards power and dominance. Blood is linked to treachery and murder, hence the emphasis on Lady Macbeth's crimes. The struggle for authority and supremacy has now shifted from Lady Macbeth to her husband, yet her evil deeds are still prominent in he subconscious mind. Light and dark imagery have been portrayed throughout Macbeth to aid to the representation of the main themes of evil opposing goodness.

Early Childhood Education: Impact on Cognitive and Social Development Essay

Abstract There has been a great deal of research conducted in the subject matter of early childhood education. During the preschool years, the human brain is growing rapidly and extremely sensitive to new information. Researchers have conducted studies in an effort to show a correlation between enrollment in early education and cognitive and social development. This paper will provide a brief overview of the results from the following: the Head Start program studies, the High/Scope Perry Preschool study, and the Child Parent Center in Chicago. This paper will also discuss the impact of childcare facilities on child development. The vast amount of research provided by these studies effectively shows an increase in cognitive development in the preschoolers that were enrolled and found that negative social behaviors were reduced as a result of early education intervention. The research indicates that all children exhibited signs of cognitive and social growth, but that underprivileged children were impacted the most. Child- care facilities were not as productive furthering childhood development. This paper will conclude by addressing the need of well-developed preschool programs and the need for well-educated teachers in the preschool environment. Keywords: early childhood education, preschool, cognitive and social development Early Childhood Education: Impact on Cognitive and Social Development Preschool is a term that defines early childhood education for children ranging from ages two through four years old. Preschool programs normally consist of federally funded programs, state and local preschools, and child care facilities. Preschool enrollment has increased dramatically over the last few decades. Approximately 75% of four year olds and 50% of three year olds are enrolled in a preschool center, which is a statistically significant contrast from 10% in the 1960’s (Barnett, 2008). Not only has there been an increase of children enrolled in public preschools, but also in private preschools (Barnett, 2008). This increase may be attributed to the need for childcare as the work force shifted from a single income to dual income household or the desire to equip children with the necessary skills to help them in their educational career (Barnett & Yarosz, 2007). Winter and Kelley (2008) reported that many early childhood teachers found that nearly one-third of their students were deficient in certain areas that were sure to hinder their educational success (p.260). There have been many studies conducted to try and define the impact of preschool on a child’s development. Researchers have studied Head Start programs across the country, the High/Scope Perry Preschool, the Child Parent Center in Chicago among others, and child care facilities. Early Childhood Education research has shown that preschool has an impact on a child’s cognitive and social development, with the greatest impact on minority and disadvantaged children. Developing Brain. Most parents and educators know that a child’s brain, from birth to approximately five years of age, is exceptionally vulnerable to the learning of new skills and concepts. Winter and Kelley (2008) state that the â€Å"neural connections or ‘synapses’ develop at a phenomenal rate during this time† which aids in developing a â€Å"foundation for later skill acquisition† (p. 263). Due to the brains extreme susceptibility during the preschool years, not only do preschoolers develop cognitive skills they need, but also socio-emotional skills. Mai, Tardif, Doan, Liu, Gehring, and Luo (2011) conducted a study of positive and negative feedback in preschoolers, which showed that preschoolers are â€Å"more responsive to positive feedback than to negative feedback† (p. 5). They concluded that the importance of the amount of positive feedback was significant enough that it may stimulate preschoolers desire to learn (Mai, et al, 2011). Researchers have found that during this early period of childhood development, children are able to boost gross motor skills and acquire language (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 262). Due to the unique nature of the brain during preschool years, experiences or lack of can impede child development (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 263). In a study conducted by Burger (2012), a toddler’s working memory can positively impact a child’s behavior and has a positive influence over a child’s math and reading ability (p. 210). A young child’s brain, if stimulated inappropriately, can have an adverse impact on cognitive and social development. A child’s cognitive development is connected to their social development. Willis and Schiller (2011) propose that â€Å"positive early experiences promote optimum brain development, which impacts all areas of development (para. 1). Impact of Government Preschool Programs In 1965, the Head Start program was created in an effort to provide â€Å"an array of social, health, and educational services for young children and their families† (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 261). This program is federally funded and targets underprivileged children. Underprivileged children are more susceptible to fall behind or to not complete their education due to lack of early education intervention. There is documentation that shows that minorities and poor children struggle with â€Å"language, literacy, social, and other skills needed† (Child Trends & Center for Child Health Research, 2004; Early et al, 2007), than children who are not underprivileged (Winter & Kelley, 2008, p. 260). Burger (2009) reports that a majority of children from low socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to: experience grade repetition, to require additional educational assistance throughout their school career, or ultimately become high school dropouts (p. 142). Ludwig and Phillips (2007) reported the findings of an evaluation completed by Garces, Thomas, and Currie (2002) that compared siblings, either attending or not attending the Head Start Program (p. 4). They wrote that the sibling that attended Head Start were 22% more likely to graduate and 19% more likely to seek higher education (p. 4). The National Impact Study (NIS) is one of the most in depth study on the Head Start program, and involves a random compilation of children enrolled in Head Start throughout the country between the ages of three and four years old (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009, p.  59). This study showed that there was minor cognitive and social growth over a nine month period. Barnett (2008) reported an increase of 0. 20 standard deviations on cognitive development and a decrease of 0. 05 standard deviations in negative social behavior, such as hyperactivity for three year olds (p. 6). However, upon completing a follow up on the study, the cognitive benefits gained by the children were no longer observed at the end of their kindergarten school year (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009, p.  59). Parents reported positive changes in their child’s dental and physical health and the research indicates an increase of 0. 12 standard deviations (Barnett, 2008, p. 6). There was a case of four year olds that experienced greater cognitive development. This was illustrated by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, which had an increase of 0. 20-0. 27 standard deviations (Barnett, 2008, p. 7). The Tulsa Head Start program was designed with a vision to help children develop skills for school readiness. This preschool program is funded by the state and is a part of the Tulsa Public School system; therefore, teachers must possess a Bachelor of Art degree and have a certification in early childhood education (Gormley, Phillips, & Gayer, 2008). The Tulsa Head Start program study compared the Tulsa Public School (TSP) pre-kindergarten against the Tulsa Head Start program. The study showed that the TSP pre-kindergarteners showed vast improvement in letter-word identification, spelling, and applied problems, whereas the Tulsa Head Start preschoolers’ results were deemed notable (Gormley, Phillips, & Gayer, 2008). While Head Start programs are supposed to adhere to a â€Å"national standard† (Pianta, et al, 2009), many do not have the same requirements (p. 55). Pianta and his colleagues (2009) explain that most teachers working for Head Start programs make less than $26,000 per year, with the exception of Tulsa Head Start whose teachers earn a regular teacher salary (p. 55). This may explain why the results of the Tulsa Head Start studies are not typical compared to other Head Start studies (Barnett, 2008, p. 7). Teacher qualifications of the Head Start employees may have an impact on the low levels of development observed of children in the program. Before 2011 Head Start teachers (excluding the Tulsa Head Start teachers) were not required to obtain an associate degree and directors did not have to possess a bachelor degree (Pianta, et al, 2009). However, Pianta and his colleagues (2009) report that by the year 2013, at least half of all Head Start teachers will be required to obtain a bachelor’s degree (p. 55). Because the Head Start studies were conducted in varying locations and on a variety of children, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact impact of cognitive and social development for each child. The rate of attendance also varies on location. Some Head Start programs have fewer than five days of scheduled class per week, while others attend the program five days a week during an entire school year (Pianta, et al, 2009, p. 54). Major successes of the Head Start programs appear to be achieving higher educational levels and improved health for children. The Head Start program reduced the mortality rate of children between the ages of five and nine years old (Barnett, 2008, p. 8) and provided a cognitive advantage in school achievement (Reynolds & Ou, 2011, p. 556). There were no extraordinary impacts on children’s social development throughout the Head Start studies. The program, however, has received conflicting reviews. Williams (2010) explains that because there is no orderly way to measure the effects of this program, there have been reports of positive â€Å"short-term gains in cognitive functioning† (p. 4) and the program has received criticism for only producing short term benefits (Williams, 2010, p. 4). Impact of Public Preschool Another option for children is a public preschool program. There are public preschools that function similar to the Head Start program, in which they target children from low income families. The teaching credentials of preschool teachers differ from other educators in the public school system and vary throughout different states. The requirements for public preschool teachers range from possessing a Child Development Associate (CDA) to a bachelor’s degree (Pianta, et al, 2009, p. 55). Public preschool programs tend to be successful in the area of cognitive and social development due to the increase of attention from the teacher (Barnett, 2008, p.8). The topic of teacher quality in preschools is of a major concern and can have a direct impact on childhood development. Winter and Kelley (2008) explain that the development of a child’s social behavior correlates with the quality of the teacher (p. 263). The most significant research on public preschools stems from the High/Scope Perry Preschool study. In this study that lasted for two years, approximately 130 children, minority and underprivileged, were either enrolled in a half-day preschool or assigned to a control group (Barnett, 2008, p. 9). These participants were chosen by the following criteria: â€Å"low levels of parent education, socioeconomic status, and low intellectual performance† (Williams, 2010, p. 4). The results were astounding. Barnett (2008) reported that language and basic cognitive skills increased by approximately 0. 90 standard deviations (p. 9). The cognitive advantage was short-lived as children from the control group were caught up during kindergarten (Barnett, 2008, p. 9); however, Reynolds and Ou (2011) determined that there was an advantage on educational attainment (p. 556). The Perry study also showed evidence of social development in later years. The students demonstrated appropriate classroom etiquette, had lower levels of delinquency, and a higher rate of commencement (Barnett, 2008, p. 9). Burger (2009) explained that the Perry study is unique in nature due to the environment of the classroom (para. 5. 2). He added that preschools similar to the Perry preschool have â€Å"low child-to-staff ratios† (Burger, 2009, para. 5. 2), so teachers are able to be readily available to their students. Another influential study on preschool impact is the Child Parent Center (CPC) study on a preschool in Chicago. This program was directed more for children from the ages of three to nine years old (Williams, 2010, p. 5). This preschool is tailored to low-income families that includes â€Å"a half-day preschool, kindergarten, and a follow-on elementary school component† (Barnett, 2008, p. 11). The results of all CPC studies were positive for impact on children’s cognitive development (Barnett, 2008, p. 12). The CPC study showed that participating preschoolers had higher test scores up until eighth grade, a reduction of delinquency, and observed an increase in the percentage of high school graduates (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009,p. 62). Reynolds and Ou (2011) also evaluated the CPC study and found that former students tend to have less risk of experiencing depression and generally have higher occupational stature (p. 558). The National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) reports that the Abbott Preschool Program has had a tremendous effect on child development as measured in 2005 and 2006 with the Abbot Preschool Program Longitudinal Study (APPLES) (Study of Abbott, 2007). The Abbott Preschool was opened in 1999 and was put in place to serve the â€Å"highest-poverty school districts† (Study of Abbott, 2007) in the state of New Jersey (Study of Abbott, 2007). This preschool program showed positive cognitive growth in their students through their kindergarten year. The students enrolled showed significant achievements in English, reading, and mathematics (Study of Abbott, 2007). This program not only measured student progress, but also took into account the quality of the classroom. The study found a significant increase in â€Å"child learning, language and reasoning, activities and interactions, and program structure† (Study of Abbott, 2007). Other studies of public preschools provided results depicting social development and school preparedness (Barnett, 2008, p.10). Pickens (2009) explains that public preschool programs â€Å"show a positive impact on children’s behavior outcomes, especially for children living in poverty† (Barnett, 1995; Peterson & Zill, 1986). In the preschool setting, children are exposed to other children from different backgrounds, different personalities and different ethnicities. During this time in childhood development, children begin to learn social behavior. Pickens (2009) explains that these social behaviors are influenced by their teachers and classmates (p. 263). Participation in the preschool setting allows children to learn how to interact with classmates and encounter situations that can mold their cognitive development (Willis & Schiller, 2011). Attending a preschool class helps to enable a child to learn to regulate their emotions, communicate effectively with others, cooperate with others, and to follow directions (Pickens, 2009, p. 263). Children model what they see. Pickens (2009) urges educators and parents to assist children in developing healthy behaviors in an effort to avoid a negative path of behavioral and academic issues (p. 264). Impact of Child Care Facilities Child care facilities can consist of home-based child care or child development centers (with some centers offering half-day preschool programs). These facilities are normally center-based and care for infants from six weeks old to three year olds (Pickens, 2009, p. 262). Child care facilities were â€Å"found to have the smallest initial effects on children’s learning and development† (Barnett, 2008), while home-based daycare had no effect on building cognitive skills (p. 5). This is not to say that all home-based daycares are not able to provide some cognitive benefit to children. If a home-based child care program is well-developed and provides a â€Å"high-quality† (Winter & Kelley, 2008), then children are more likely to benefit cognitively (p. 263). This high-quality can also make a difference in child care centers. The National Institute of Child Health (NICHD) and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) showed that â€Å"higher quality care†(Belsky, Burchinal, McCartney, Vandell, Clarke-Stewart, & Tresch Owen, 2007) had a positive impact on children’s vocabulary skills (p. 681). The NICHD SECCYD conducted future evaluations and found that some effects wore off at four and a half years old, while when evaluated in third grade the children had â€Å"higher scores on standardized tests of math, memory, and vocabulary skills† (Belsky, et al, 2007). The cognitive long-term benefits of attending child care may result in an increase in household income caused by working mothers; however, working mothers tend to spend less time with their children (Barnett, 2008). Just like preschool, child care can benefit underprivileged children. Belsky et al (2007) stated that â€Å"child care can serve as an effective intervention for low-income children† (Hart & Risley, 1995) that live in a household lacking in literary skills (p. 697). Barnett (2008) mentioned that some studies show an actual regression of social development as children were more prone to be aggressive (p. 6). Winter and Kelley (2008) also report that the amount of time a child spends in child care has an impact of negative behaviors when they reach elementary school (p. 263). Others believe that a child’s negative behavior is may correlate with the amount of time spent in day care. Pianta and his colleagues (2009) found that children who spent the least amount of hours in day care had less troublesome behavior (p. 58). Just as the quality of the Head Start and preschool teacher had an impact on the child, so does the caregiver at a child care center. The lack of academic qualifications of child care workers or lack of academically challenging curriculum can attribute to the small cognitive development observed in children who attend child care versus a more academically centered program. Meyers (2007) reports that the approximately two and a half million child care teachers are some of the lowest paid, only earning approximately $18,000 annually (para. 1). This is significantly lower than other early education teachers. The cognitive and social impacts on children are strongly related to child-to-teacher ratio, total number of children in a room, and the teacher’s qualifications (Clothier & Poppe, 2007). However, it has been noted that the amount of attention the caregiver offers to the child can have an impact on their social and cognitive development (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009, p. 58). Conclusion There are noticeable short-term and long-term impacts on a child’s development, cognitively and socially, with the aid of early childhood education programs. Because the brain is vulnerable at this age it is in these years that children experience â€Å"dramatic improvements† (Mai, et al, 2011) in their cognitive and social abilities. The government funded program, Head Start, has indicated that while children do show immediate, moderate growth in cognitive development, social benefits were not as prominent. This program has proven to be beneficial to children from low- income families, as it has resulted in improved literacy, language skills and an increased rate of commencement. Preschool studies have also shown an increase in reading and mathematics ability and in some cases extending into elementary school years. The social benefits of a preschool education have had an even longer impact on a child’s future behavioral issues. There is a vast amount of research that shows that â€Å"the early years of a child’s  development can influence future success† (Winter & Kelley, 2008), so federal and state â€Å"policy makers should not depart from preschool education models that have proven highly effective† (Barnett, 2008). It is important that in order for preschool programs, government-funded and public, to continue to be effective in child development, the need for well-designed programs is a must (Barnett, 2008). These well-designed programs must demand a high caliber of teachers that have formal post-secondary education in the area of early childhood development. Preschools should be prepared meet the needs of the variety of students from different backgrounds and be able to give children in need more of a priority (Barnett, 2008). More research on the impact of early childhood education is needed, due to the varying types of programs that are currently in place. References Barnett, W. S. (2008). Preschool education and its lasting effects: Research and policy implications. Boulder and Tempe: Education and the Public Interest Center & Education Policy Research Unit. Retrieved September 12, 2012 from http://epicpolicy. org/publication/preschooleducation Barnett, W. S., & Yarosz, D. J. (2007). Who goes to preschool and why does it matter? Preschool Policy Brief, 15, p. 2. Retrieved October 8, 2012 from http://nieer. org/resources/policybriefs/15. pdf Belsky, J. , Vandell, D. L. , Burchinal, M. , Clarke-Stewart, K. A. , McCartney, K. , Owen, M. T. , & the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2007). Are there long-term effects of early child care? Child Development, 78, p. 681–701. Burger, K. (2010). How does early childhood care and education affect cognitive development? An international review of the effects of early interventions for children from different social backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 25, 140-165. doi: 10. 1016/j. ecresq. 2009. 11. 001 Gormley, W. T. , Phillips, D. , & Gayer, T. (2008). The early years: Preschool programs can boost school readiness. Science. 320(5884), p. 1723-1724. doi:10. 1126/science. 1156019 Ludwig, J. , & Phillips, D. (2007). The benefits and cost of head start. Society for Research on Child Development, Social Policy Report. 21(3), p. 3-19 Mai, X. , Tardif, T. , Doan, S. N. , Lui, C. , Gehring, W. J. , & Luo, Y. (2011). Brain activity elicited by positive and negative feedback in preschool-aged children. PLoS ONE. 6(4), e18774. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0018774 Meyers, M. K. (2007). Child-care pay, child-care quality: Decent early childhood education requires well-trained and compensated educators. The American Prospect 18(12), A18. Pianta, R. C. , Barnett, S. W. , Burchinal, M. , Thornburg, K. R. (2009). The effects of preschool education: What we know, how public policy is or is not aligned with the evidence base, and what we need to know. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 10(2), p. 49-88. doi: 10. 1177/1529100610381908 Pickens, J. (2009). Socio-emotional programme promotes positive behaviour in preschoolers. Child Care in Practice. 15(4), p. 261-278. doi: 10. 1080/13575270903149323 Reynolds, A. J. , & Ou, S. (2011). Paths of effects from preschool to adult well-being: A confirmatory analysis of the child-parent center program. Child Development. 82(2). p. 555-582. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2010. 01562. x Study of abbott preschool program finds positive effects. (2007, August/September). Preschool Matters. Retrieved September 28, 2010 from http://nieer. org/publications/preschool-matters-newsletters/volume-5-number-4 Williams, J.(2010). Assessment of quality preschool programming (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved September 28, 2012 from ProQuest. (UMI:3413253) Willis, C. A. , & Schiller, P. (2011). Preschoolers’ social skills steer life success. YC Young Children, 66(1), 42-49. Retrieved September 24, 2012 from http://search. proquest. com/docview/874155104? accountid=12085 Winter, S. M. , & Kelley, M. F. (2008). Forty years of school readiness research. Childhood Education, 84(5), 260-260. Retrieved September 12, 2012 from http://search. proquest. com. ezproxy. liberty. edu:2048/docview/210412708/fulltextPDF? accountid=12085.

ASIC v Adler Essay

The case of ASIC v Adler is very unique as well as complicated since it involved several breach of duties in the Corporations Act 2001. The HIH collapse was caused by very bad corporate governance. Such breach of duties are, section 9 (director’s duties), section 180 (duty to act with care and diligence), section 181 (duty to act in good faith and for a proper purpose), section 182 (improper use of position), section 182(2) (business judgement rule), section 183 (duty not to improperly use information) and section 260A (financial assistance). All of these contraventions under the Corporations Act 2001 will be discussed in detail below. Section 9 – Who Is A Director And Their Duties Under section 9, a director of a company is defined as a person who is appointed to that position such as a director or alternate director, regardless of what name it is given to that position. Section 9 also includes certain people to be directors even though they are not properly appointed. Such people can act as a director even though without proper appointment of director position. This is where they act in the position of a director (which can be also known as de facto director) or the directors are used to act in accordance with the person’s instructions (which also known as a â€Å"shadow director†). Directors’ duties need to be existed in order to protect shareholders from the risks of directors giving harm towards the company. Shareholders basically have risks such as fraud, where the directors took control over the assets belonging to the company by using it for their personal interest, and mismanagement, whereby directors made an incompetent decision with the financial standing of the company. Furthermore, section 9 also defines the â€Å"officer of a corporation†, which basically includes company executives who held senior positions in the board  level. Such persons can be identified in certain situations where that person (the executives) makes or joins participation into making decisions in which affects the whole or substantial part of the company’s business activities or, the person who has the authority to affect in a significant way towards the company’s financial standings or, basically the same definition of a â€Å"shadow director† where the person are acting towards the instructions given to them to act. In the case of ASIC v Adler, the court held that Adler, the director of HIH, was also an officer of wholly-owned HIH subsidiary which can be related under the section 9 definition of directors. This applies to Adler even though he was not properly appointed as a director or an officer of the subsidiary. Since he has the role of director, the subsidiary holding company and also a member of HIH investment committee, this has showed that he participated in the decision making of the company’s business in which affected it the whole or substantial part of the business. As Santow J gave his judgement on this case, he gave a good summary of principles applicable to directors’ duties. Some of it are; a director must continuously kept informed of the activities of the company, they must be familiar with the fundamentals of the business whereby the company is doing. Section 180 – Duty To Act With Care And Diligence In the section 180(1), it provides that a director or other officer of a company need to exercise their powers and discharge their duties with a standard of care and diligence in which a reasonable person will do if they were the director or officer of a company due to company’s circumstances (section 180(1)(a)) and occupied the office and had the same responsibilities in the company as the director or officer (section 180(1)(b)). Executive directors are full time employees of the company who involved in the day-to-day management of the company. They have special responsibilities with their position and have a high knowledge of daily operations of the company. Non-executive directors, on the other hand, do part-time and have regular involvements in the company. In the case of ASIC v Adler, Williams who was the managing director for HIH and HIHC as well, contravened section 180(1) as he failed to ensure there were proper safeguard before HIHC gave the loan to PEE. Fodera, who was the finance director of HIH, contravened section 180 as he failed to discuss a proposal to give $10 million loan to PEE to the HIH board or its investment committee. As the executive directors of the company, both Fodera and Williams failed to carry out their role properly without informing the HIH board of their intention. Section 180 (2) – The Business Judgement Rule In the section of 180(2), the section provides that a director or any other officer who makes a business judgement rule, will not be held liable in respect of the judgement under the statutory, common law or equitable duties of care and diligence, in which all of the elements can be shown. Such elements are, the judgement was properly made in good faith and for proper purpose, there was not material personal interest in the subject as of the matter of the judgement, the directors and the officers informed themselves about the subject matter of the judgement to the extent they appropriately believed to be reasonable and also the judgement was believed to be in rational in the best interest of the whole company. All of these would be reasonably justified unless any other person in such position thinks that it is completely unreasonable. The business judgement rule basically gives the directors with a â€Å"safe protection† from a personal liability in the relation of the business judgements that they take are valid which is in a good faith and in the best interest of the company. This is because some of their business decisions may turn out to be profit-making or a total loss in honest and rational way. Some of the main reasons for the business judgement rule defences are risk taking and activities in entrepreneurial activities will be encouraged since directors are aware of the specific legislation that if they act honestly,  they will not be punished or personally liable as a result of adverse judicial review. Another rule defence is that better business judgement will be made as a result of removing of some uncertainty of liability under the statutory duty of care and finally, the shareholders interest are better provided by engaging risk taking activities. To make directors be liable for such small erro rs of decision will promote risk-adverse decision-making with contrast effect on the economy. If the directors or other officers are able to satisfy the above requirements, they will have â€Å"safe protection† which makes them to be protected from liability for any breach of their duties of care and diligence. This means that their business judgement in such situations will be reviewed by court. Under section 180(3), the business judgement is defined that any decisions to take or not to take action with respect to matter that is relevant to business activities of the company. This only refers to business decisions that has made relevant to the business activities. It does not include any decisions made in the position of directors powers such as the power to issue shares or pay dividends. By referring to the case ASIC v Adler, the court held that all three Adler, Williams and Fodera breached their statutory duty of care as stated in section 180(1). They also, however could not rely on the business judgement rule as their defence. Firstly for Adler, the business judgement rule did not applicable for him since he cannot satisfy the section 180(2)(b) since he had a conflict of interest in the relation of his decision to invest the $10 million payment from HIHC in PEE. Secondly for Williams, the business judgement rule did not apply to him because of his failed to ensure the correct safeguards were enforced was not business judgement for the purpose in section 180(3). However, even this was a business judgement, since he was a major shareholder of HIH, he basically has material personal interest as in the section 180(2)(b). Other than that, Williams also failed to present any evidence that his judgement was done in good faith for the proper purpose as stated in section 18 0(2)(a). Finally, Fodera cannot rely on his business judgement rule as he failed to refer the transaction of PEE to the HIH board or its investment committee. This was not a business judgement as  stated in section 180(3). Section 181 – Statutory Duty To Act In Good Faith And For A Proper Purpose Under section 181(1), it says that a director or other officer of a corporation to exercise their powers and discharge their duties in bona fide (good faith) for the best interest of the company and also for a proper purpose. The section 181(1) can be contravened if the director thinks that they are actually doing their duties for the best interest of the company in which any other director, in that situation, thinks that is clearly unacceptable approach to do it. This may be happen when a director have a conflict of interest personally with the interest of the company they are handling. In the case of ASIC v Adler, it can clearly be seen that Adler, had contravened the section 181(1) to act in good faith by properly excising his powers and discharging his duties for the best interest of the company. This is because, the transactions that occurred in the HIH, HIHC and PEE had been improperly used, for the sake of his personal interest. Section 182 – Improper Use Of Position Under section 182, the section states that it restricts officers or the employees of a company from improperly using their power to gain advantage for themselves or for any other persons to the company. In the case of ASIC v Adler, the court held that Adler had contravened the section 182 due to the arrangement of $10 million loan from HIHC to PEE which was then to be used to acquire HIH shares on the stock market. This transaction was merely done for the purpose of supporting the HIH shares to increase the price and thereby selling the HIH shares owned by Adler Corporation before PEE could sell off their HIH shares. Because of this transaction, PEE had incurred a total loss of investment by reselling on the HIH shares. In regard of this transaction, Adler was held that he had improperly used his position as a director of HIH, officer of HIHC and director of PEE to gain advantage for the Adler Corporation. The court also held that Williams, also had breached his duties as a director for both HIH and HIHC under section 182, to help gaining advantage for Adler Corporation. This is because Williams, used his position improperly by authorising the $10 million load payment without proper approval from the HIH’s investment committee, which he was required to disclose under the HIH’s investment guidelines. Other than that, the court also held that Adler improperly used his position as a director in the PEE transactions of acquiring a number of unlisted capitals at the cost price from Adler Corporation without obtaining independent valuations of these ventures. With these transactions successful, Adler and Adler Corporation was able to exclude himself from these commercially unviable business operations. Adler basically knew that each of those businesses were having major cash flow problems and each had a significant risk that they would ultimately collapse. Adler, however, failed to disclose his personal interest to the HIH board other than Williams and Fodera. Section 183 – Improper Use of Information As stated in section 183, a person who gets information because they are or are not director, officer or employee of a company, must not misuse the information just to gain advantage for themselves or to any other person whereby causing failure in the company. Section 183 also applies towards resigned or retired directors, officers and employees as well. Informations such as insider information can be taken as an advantage by any person in order to gain benefit by using it to themselves or by giving to other person. In the case of ASIC v Vizard, the court held that Vizard involved in the contravention of section 183, whereby he gained the insider information as he was the non-executive director of Telstra. He misused the information in order to gain advantage for CTI, Brigham and himself as well whereby based on the information that he receives (Telstra board’s decision to acquire  other company and selling their interest on another company), he would act accordingly to buy or sell off his shares ahead of Telstra. S260A – Financial Assistance In section 260A, the section states that it forbids a company financially assisting a person to obtain or acquire shares in the same company of its holding company. However, if some of the conditions are met then the company may proceed to do such transaction. Some of the conditions are, giving the financial assistance will not materially prejudice the interest of the company, its shareholders or the company’s ability to pay its creditors (under section 260A(1)(a)), the financial assistance is validated by the shareholders (under section 260B) or the financial assistance is relieved or exempted (under section 260C). Financial assistance is can be basically referred to where a company is lending money to a person to buy the company shares. This means that the company gives a certain amount of money to a person so that the person buys some of the company’s shares. Another example is where a company gives a surety or guaranteed a person’s loan in which the sum of the loan will be proceeded to buy shares in the company. The company is basically providing a loan to a person for the sake of buying back its own shares off the stock market. Another example is where the company is giving its own assets as a security to a person’s loan in which the loan money will be used to buy the shares of the company given its assets as security. The section 260A clearly states that a company is restricted from giving financial assistance to a person to buy its own shares in the stock market as it will cause material prejudice. By analysing the case of ASIC V Adler, it can be seen that Adler, who was controlling PEE, was clearly contravened the section of 260A by which giving financial assistance to PEE through HIHC, a subsdiary of HIH, which is also a company controlled by Adler. This financial assistance given to PEE, was then used to buy the HIH shares on the stock market. This transaction gives a false impression over the stock market as well as its investors that Adler was supporting the falling share  price of its company, HIH, by buying the shares personally. However, the court found out that Adler does not have the intention to make easy profit and reselling the HIH shares. The real purpose was to increase the HIH share price in benefit of Alder Corporation Limited as substantial shareholding in HIH. The actual evidence is that when PEE went to sell off the HIH shares, it was done only after Adler Corporation decided to sell off its HIH shares in which leads to total loss for PEE’s investment. The Supreme Court of New South Wales held that the main intention of the transaction was that HIHC gave PEE financial assistance in order to acquire the shares in HIH which is HIHC’s holding company. Due to this transaction, according to Santow J, both HIHC and HIH suffered material prejudice, which therefore, contravening section 260A.